Science and Pseudoscience

Story of the N-Rays

 

Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable claims; reliance on confirmation bias rather than rigorous attempts at refutation; lack of openness to evaluation by other experts; absence of systematic practices when developing hypotheses; and continued adherence long after the pseudoscientific hypotheses have been experimentally discredited.

The story of N-rays is a fascinating and classic cautionary tale in the history of science, illustrating the power of self-deception, the importance of rigorous methodology, and the social dynamics of scientific discovery. Slightly edited, and illustrated, this tale is dug up from the pages of early twentieth century science in France by ChatGPT.

The Discovery - A New Kind of Invisible Light

In early 1903, Professor René-Prosper Blondlot, a respected and well-established physicist at the University of Nancy in France, was experimenting with X-rays (discovered by Röntgen in 1895). He was investigating whether X-rays could be polarized. 

Blondlot’s setup involved an X-ray tube and a spark gap in a dark room. He observed that the brightness of the spark seemed to increase slightly when he passed the X-rays through an aluminum prism. Intrigued, he continued his experiments and eventually concluded that he had discovered a new form of radiation, entirely distinct from X-rays. He named them N-rays (after his hometown of Nancy).

[Prosper-René Blondlot was a professor of physics at the University of Nancy studying electromagnetic radiation. Blondlot was a respected member of the scientific community and one of eight physicists who were corresponding members of the French Academy of Sciences and was awarded the Academy's Gaston Planté prize in 1893 and the LaCaze prize in 1899. His attempts to measure the speed of electromagnetic waves were commended by J J Thomson and Henri Poincaré. Blondlot began investigating the nature of X-rays shortly after their discovery, trying to determine whether they behaved as particles or electromagnetic waves. This was before wave-particle duality became widely accepted among scientists.]

The Properties - Elusive and Bizarre

Blondlot and, soon, dozens of other scientists in France (particularly in Nancy) began reporting a flood of amazing properties for N-rays:

• Emission: They were emitted not only by X-ray tubes but also by incandescent light bulbs, gas flames, and even certain metals under stress.
• Detection: The primary detector was the human eye, specifically its ability to perceive a faintly illuminated object in a dark room. N-rays were said to make a dim spark appear brighter or a faintly glowing painted surface easier to see.
• Strange Interactions: They could be stored in certain materials (like brick or wood) and re-emitted later (!). They could be refracted by aluminum and quartz prisms, and even focused with lenses.
• Biological Emission: Most remarkably, Blondlot and others claimed that the human body, particularly the nervous system, emitted N-rays. They reported that the rays intensified when a person was excited and diminished when asleep or under anesthesia.

The Frenzy - Acceptance and Skepticism

For a few years, N-rays were a sensation, primarily in France.

• Widespread Acclaim: Over 100 scientists published nearly 300 papers on the phenomenon.
• Prestigious Recognition: In 1904, the French Academy of Sciences awarded Blondlot their prestigious Leconte Prize, largely for his discovery of N-rays.
• National Pride: The discovery became a matter of national pride, seen as a French answer to the German Röntgen's X-rays and the Englishman Crookes's work on cathode rays.

However, outside of France, particularly in Germany, Britain, and the United States, physicists were deeply skeptical. A major red flag was that no one outside the core French group could replicate the effects. The key "measurement" was a subjective visual judgment—"Does this spark look brighter to you?"—which was notoriously prone to bias.

The Demise - The American Skeptic

The turning point came with Robert W Wood, a brilliant and pragmatic American physicist from Johns Hopkins University, who was deeply skeptical of the entire affair.

In 1904, the journal Nature sent Wood to Blondlot's laboratory in Nancy to investigate firsthand.

Wood witnessed Blondlot's demonstrations with all due attention. In one key experiment, Blondlot used an aluminum prism to project an N-ray spectrum onto a screen with a faintly glowing paint, claiming he could see distinct bright lines. Wood, in the dark room, saw nothing.

The decisive moment came when Wood, unseen by Blondlot, secretly removed the crucial aluminum prism from the experimental apparatus.

When Blondlot continued his demonstration, he confidently described the N-ray spectrum and its bright lines exactly as before, even though the essential component for creating that spectrum was lying in Wood's pocket.

In another experiment involving the dimming of a spark when a heavy file was placed in the N-ray path, Wood silently replaced the file with a piece of wood of similar size. Blondlot still reported the spark dimming, proving the effect was entirely in his mind.

The Aftermath - A Lesson in Scientific Rigor

Wood published his devastating account in Nature in 1904. The report was polite but unequivocal: the phenomena were illusory.

The impact was swift and brutal.

• Loss of Credibility: Blondlot's reputation was destroyed. He never recovered from the humiliation and spent the rest of his life in obscurity, still believing in his discovery.
• Rapid Collapse: Interest in N-rays evaporated almost overnight. The field, which had seemed so promising, was exposed as a house of cards built on subjective observation and experimenter bias.
• The "N-Ray Effect": The case became a textbook example of the ideomotor effect and confirmation bias. Scientists saw what they expected to see. The slight, natural fluctuations in the perception of a dim spark were interpreted as real effects caused by their manipulations.

The Legacy

The story of N-rays is not just a historical curiosity; it serves as a permanent lesson for all scientists:

1. The Necessity of Blind and Double-Blind Experiments: To avoid bias, the person measuring an effect should not know whether the experimental condition is active or not.

2. The Danger of Subjective Measurement: Human senses are easily fooled. Objective, instrument-based measurement is crucial.

3. The Importance of Skepticism: Healthy skepticism and independent replication are the bedrock of the scientific method.

4. The Power of Expectation: The story is a powerful demonstration of how a strong belief can literally alter one's perception of reality.

In the end, N-rays were not a new form of radiation, but a profound insight into the psychology of science itself.

[PS:  The current hysteria over the visitation of the extraterrestrial comet 3I/ATLAS may very well lead to another "N-Ray Effect".]